1. INTRODUCTION:

Plants have been used for medical purposes in India for 5,000 years. More than 6000 plants are thought to be used in traditional, folk, and herbal medicine, however it was formally acknowledged that 2500 plant species have therapeutic significance.¹Natural products and herbal remedies have been utilised to treat illnesses since ancient times.²Herbal medicines have thousands of ingredients that all work together to combat ailments, in contrast to the commonly utilised allopathic system.³

The genus Stachytarpheta known as “gervao” or “orgevao,” has more than 100 species distributed in tropical and subtropical parts of America, Brazil, Asia, and Australia.^4,5 Stachytarpheta indica, commonly known as “blue snakeweed”, belongs to the family Verbenaceae⁶ and is widely distributed in Southeast Asia, tropical America, and East Africa.⁷ Stachytarpheta indica is a well-branched herb of 2-3 feet in height, characterized by elongated, narrow spikes; flowers are deep blue with a white centre; classified as a weed. Adaptable to drought; ideal for xeriscaping⁸.

Traditional medicine has utilised S. indica for a variety of conditions, including rheumatism, alopecia, bronchitis, pruritis, diarrhoea, skin sores, dysmenorrhea, erysipelas, inflammation, poisoning, tumours, venereal disease, cataracts, rheumatism, anti-fertility treatment, and as an abortifacient.⁹

S. indica leaves are decocted into a hot tea in Brazil to cure fever, chronic liver issues, constipation, and water retention.¹⁰In Northern Nigeria, they are also used to treat diarrhoea in horses and humans.¹¹ Additionally, the plant is used to cure malaria in some regions of Peru and Southern Nigeria.⁶ Aqueous extracts of S. indica have been subjected to phytochemical investigation, which has identified the presence of flavonoids, terpenoids, and tannins that have antibacterial properties.¹²

Despite its traditional medicinal use and encouraging pharmacological potential, Stachytarpheta indica remains underexplored in contemporary clinical practice. This is largely due to the scarcity of comprehensive clinical studies, variations in extract preparation, and a lack of translational research. Therefore, there is a significant need to consolidate current scientific findings and investigate its therapeutic prospects further. This review seeks to provide an in-depth overview of the phytochemical and pharmacological attributes of S. indica, highlighting its relevance to modern medicine and pinpointing key areas for future research.

1. Botanical Description and Traditional Applications:

1.1 Taxonomy:

Stachytarpheta indica commonly known as Indian Snakeweed, belongs to the family Verbeneceae. It is a well-branched herb with very long narrow spikes and the flowers are deep blue with a white centre.¹³

Scientific classification:¹⁴

Kingdom: Plantae

Division: Tracheophyta

Class: Magnoliopsida

Order: Lamiales

Family: Verbenaceae

Genus: Stachytarpheta

Species: indica (L.) Vahl

Vernacular names:¹⁵

Hindi: Kariyartharani

Malayalam: Katu punnuttu

Kannada: Kari uttarani

Tulu: Katuttarane

Tamil: Seemai nayaroovi

Telugu: Maeda balaku

1.2 Distribution and Habitat:

Mexico to Tropical America is the native home of the species Stachytarpheta indica. The plant is locally distributed in Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra. Global distribution includes Asia: India, Srilanka; Africa: Benin, Burundi, Cameron, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Madagascar, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo; North America.¹⁶

1.3 Botanical Characteristics:

Stachytarpheta indica is an upright subshrub that grows up to two meters tall and can be either annual or perennial. Either brown or white taproot. solid, quadrangular stem. hairy or glabrous. Absent are stipules. Simple leaves that are opposite, stalked, elliptic or ovate, more than 2cm long or wide, typically airy on both sides, with a coarsely dentate border, an acute or obtuse apex, a rounded or obtuse base, and pinnate veining.¹⁷It is a well-branched annual herb that grows to a height of 0.6 to 0.9m. Its flowers are deep blue with a white centre, 5 lobed and 1.3cm wide. And its very long, slender spikes resemble snakes. A short terminal spike of stalkless blue blooms with blue petals and a white throat emerges.¹⁸ Fruit is a nut, and this plant is similar to Blue Porterweed (Stachytarpheta jamaicensis).¹⁹

1.4 Traditional Uses:

Stachytarpheta indica is being widely employed in the Indian traditional system of medicine to treat diabetes and liver problems. In addition, it is also used as a folk remedy for allergies, respiratory disorders, cough, cold, fever, constipation, digestive issues, and dysentery. It has also been shown to encourage menstruation. Traditional medicine values the stem bark as an antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, and analgesic medication.²⁰In Bangladesh, the plant is used as an abortifacient to treat intestinal worms, venereal diseases, ulcers, dropsy, stomach problems, purulent ulcers, fevers, and rheumatic inflammations; its juice is used to treat cataracts and open sores; its bark infusion is used to treat diarrhoea and dysentery; its leaves are used to treat cardiac issues and to rub sprains and bruises.²¹

2. Phytochemical composition of Stachytarpheta indica:

Phytochemical screening of the genus Stachytarpheta revealed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, saponins, glycosides, steroids, and phenols. Sterols, β-sitosterol, stigmasterol, and lupeol are among the active ingredients in the entire S. indica plant, along with triterpenic acid, ursolic acid, flavone apigenin, iridoids ipolamide, phenylethanoid glycosides, and verbascoside. The leaves are found to contain sulphurous acid, 2-ethylhexyl hexyl ester, N-t-butylpyrrole, pantanoic acid, 5-decyne, 11,14,17-eicosatrienoic acid, methyl ester, phytol 2-methylheptanoic acid, norpipanone, 1,5,9-undecatriene, 2,6,10-trimethyl-, vitamin E, 1,3-benzenediol, o-(2-methoxybenzoyl)-o'-ethoxy carbonyl- 4-methyl-2,4-bis (4’-trimethylsilyloxyphenyl) pentene-1, phthalic acid, and di (2,3-dimethylphenyl) ester.^20,22

3. Pharmacological Activities:

3.1 Antioxidant Activity:

In both fresh and dried samples, the 75% methanolic extract of S. indica leaf exhibited the best antioxidant activity when compared to the 50% methanolic and aqueous extracts. The extracts' quantitative radical scavenging experiment produced dose-dependent results. Better antioxidant activity was demonstrated by the leaf extract as in contrast to the stem extract. As a result, leaf extracts produced higher results in both qualitative and quantitative tests. Consequently, the plant has demonstrated therapeutic value and is an excellent choice for further research.^23,24

3.2 Hypoglycemic Activity:

Oral Glucose Tolerance Test induced hyperglycemia. Guinea pigs and rabbits were used in this experiment. 2.5% of flavonoids and 6.4% of tannins were obtained using phytochemical fractionation. Both the rabbits and the guinea pigs showed activity from the extracts. When it came to activity, flavonoids outperformed tannins (p<0.05). The results supported the hypoglycemic impact of Stachytarpheta indica (L.) Vahl, that has been shown in other animal species; flavonoids may be more responsible for this effect than tannins.²⁵

3.3 Anti-inflammatory Activity:

Significant anti-inflammatory action was demonstrated by an infusion of Stachytarpheta indica leaf extract in methanol in a dose-dependent manner that was equivalent to that of regular indomethacin. The carrageenan-induced hind paw oedema model is employed in this study to evaluate the anti-inflammatory activity in animals.²⁶

3.4 Hepatoprotective activity:

When the alcoholic extract of the entire S. indica plant was given to rats at a dose of 600mg/kg, it markedly enhanced their biochemical profiles in a number of liver function tests. The drug-treated rats in this study had higher levels of liver enzymes like SOD, Catalase, and GSH, and lower levels of serum enzymes like ALT, AST, and ALP. This demonstrates that Stachytarpheta indica ethanolic extract protects against liver damage caused by carbon tetrachloride. Histopathological analysis further validated the protective effect, which was shown to be equivalent to silymarin (100mg/kg).²⁷

3.5 Antibacterial activity:

Aqueous and methanolic root extracts of Stachytarpheta indica Vahl. were evaluated for their antibacterial properties. Using the disc diffusion method, the antibacterial qualities of the aqueous and methanolic extracts were investigated against clinically significant bacteria, including Escherichia coli, Bacillus cereus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Enterobacter aerogens. Comparable to the common antibiotic streptomycin, the aqueous extract demonstrated strong action against every species of bacteria currently under investigation.^28,29

3.6 Analgesic activity:

Petroleum ether (60–80°C), chloroform, ethanol, and distilled water were used in increasing order of polarity to extract the dried leaves. Swiss Albino mice's writhing response to acetic acid was used to test these extracts' analgesic qualities. The findings indicated that, in comparison to the untreated control, the herb extract considerably decreased the writhing in mice by 77.6%. The herb's analgesic action was further supported by the results of the second model of enormity of the tail. In comparison to other extracts (petroleum ether, chloroform, and water extracts), the results demonstrated that the strong, when taken at a dose of 200mg/kg body weight, had a notable analgesic effect.³⁰

3.7 Wound healing activity:

From the leaves of S. indica, three active chemicals were identified: ipolamiide, verbascoside, and iso-verbascoside. Verbascoside showed broad-spectrum antibacterial activity and strongly inhibited Staphylococci species at 9.77μg/mL. At doses greater than 0.4mg/mL, S. indica extracts (0.1–0.2mg/mL) have been demonstrated to enhance human keratinocyte proliferation by up to 60% and cause morphological alterations by generating cytoplasmic projections. Both individual substances (3.125–50μg/mL) and plant extracts (6.25–100μg/mL) produced potent anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting the enzymes 5-lipoxygenase and cyclooxygenase-1 and by reducing the production of interleukin-8. Collectively, these results indicate that plant extracts and isolated components from S. indica may be able to prevent the growth of germs, encourage tissue repair, and lessen inflammation; as a result, they may serve as the foundation for a novel wound treatment method.³¹

4. Toxicological Profile and Safety Assessment:

4.1 Acute toxicity studies:

Toxicological evaluation of Stachytarpheta indica was shown as highly safe in acute oral toxicity studies. In acute toxicity conducted on Wistar albino rats, no mortality or any other adverse reactions were identified. The overall behaviour stayed constant throughout the study. Since the LD50, which is typically the dose that will cause 50% of the population to die, was found to be greater than 8 g/kg, therapeutic doses of the S. indica methanol extract can be safely administered in the range of 0–8g/kg.^32,33

4.2 Cytotoxicity:

Stem and leaves of the plant Stachytarpheta indica were collected and extracted using methanol by the maceration process.³⁴Leaf extract was somewhat more active than stem extract. However, the activities of both the extracts were not very significant. The brine shrimp assay is done to identify the hazardous nature of samples. Results of both the extracts showed that neither is harmful.³⁵

4.3 Safe Dose Range:

The majority of research indicates that doses between 300 and 600mg/kg p.o. body weight/day is efficient and well-tolerated in animal models, while the safe dosage can vary based on the form and preparation.³⁶

5. Therapeutic Formulations and Drug Development:

5.1 Nano Particles and Advanced Drug Delivery Systems:

Nanotechnology advancements have bridged the gap between biological and physical sciences by utilising nanostructures such as nanomedicine and nanodrug delivery platforms.³⁷ Nanomaterials are microscopic particles ranging in size from 1 to 100nm that have transformed the field of nanomedicine.³⁸ Biosensors, microfluidic systems, medication delivery, tissue engineering, and microarray testing all make use of these nanostructures.³⁹

By creating nanoformulations, recent developments in nanotechnology have increased the medicinal potential of S. indica extracts. These include:

· Using non-hazardous solvents and snake weed plant extracts, biosynthesis was used to create magnetite and ZnO nanoparticles. The FTIR spectra revealed that the leaf extract was rich in polyphenols, which improved the reduction and capping of the produced metal oxide nanoparticles. The procedure can be employed as a cost-effective and environmentally friendly substitute for the chemical production of the same, according to the results.⁴⁰

· The production of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) using Stachytarpheta indica extract exhibit promising characteristics for antibacterial and biological applications, underlining their significance in sustainable nanoscience.⁴¹

· Stachytarpheta indica is used in the eco-friendly synthesis and characterisation of zinc nanoparticles (ZnNPs). Synthesised zinc nanoparticles showed structural and chemical characteristics that were in line with those of earlier plant-mediated nanoparticles. S. indica extract produced stable zinc nanoparticles (ZnNPs) with potential uses in antimicrobial and environmental technologies.⁴²

6. CONCLUSION:

With a variety of pharmacological qualities backed by both traditional usage and early scientific research, Stachytarpheta indica has become a promising medicinal plant. Its wide range of therapeutic potential is demonstrated by its documented anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antipyretic, antioxidant, antidiabetic, and hepatoprotective properties. Its biological activity may be attributed to the presence of bioactive substances such as flavonoids, alkaloids, glycosides, phenolics, and tannins, which have been identified by phytochemical investigations.

Comprehensive clinical research and toxicological evaluations are still few, despite the traditional and experimental data that support its medical usage.

To confirm its effectiveness and safety, further investigation is required using standardised extracts, mechanism-based investigations, and human clinical trials. Incorporating Stachytarpheta indica into contemporary medicine may provide a natural and affordable alternative for treating a range of illnesses, particularly in environments with limited resources.

To sum up, Stachytarpheta indica is a useful but underutilised plant in contemporary medicine. It has the potential to make a substantial contribution to the creation of innovative, plant-based pharmaceuticals with thorough scientific verification and long-term preservation.

7. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS:

SOD: Superoxide Dismutase

GSH: Glutathione

ALT: Alanine transaminase

AST: Aspartate transaminase

ALP: Alkaline phosphatase

LD50: Lethal dose

FTIR: Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy

8. ACKNOWLEDGMENT:

The authors of this article would like to express their gratitude to Dr. B. A. Vishwanath, Chairman of the Aditya Group of Institutions, Yelahanka, Bengaluru, for giving me access to use the college's research facilities and for providing me with the materials required.

9. CONFLICT OF INTEREST:

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.

10. REFERENCES:

1. M. Dhanasekaran. Evaluation of Nootropic Activity of Ethanolic Extract of Ardisia blatteri using Different Experimental Models in Rats. Asian Journal of Research in Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2019; 9(4): 267-269. doi: 10.5958/2231-5659.2019.00041.9

2. Aashwini A. Gholkar, Yogesh P. Nikam, Krushna K. Zambare, Kavya V. Reddy, Akash D. Ghorpade. Potential Anticoagulant Herbal Plants: A Review. Asian Journal of Research in Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2020; 10(1): 51-55. doi: 10.5958/2231-5659.2020.00010.7

3. Yogita R. Indalkar, Nayana V. Pimpodkar, Anita S. Godase, Puja S. Gaikwad. A Compressive Review on the Study of Nanotechnology for Herbal Drugs. Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical Research.2015;5(4):203-207. doi: 10.5958/2231-5691.2015.00031.3

4. S. Princely, N. Saleem Basha, J. John Kirubakaran, and M.D. Dhanaraju. Preliminary phytochemical screening and antimicrobial activity of aerial parts of Stachytarpheta indica L. (Vahl.). Medicinal Plants. 2013; 5(2): 96-101. doi: 10.5958/j.0975-6892.5.2.015

5. Vela SM, Souccar C, Lima-Landman MT, Lapa AJ. Inhibition of gastric acid secretion by the aqueous extract and purified extracts of Stachytarpheta cayennensis. Planta Med.1997; 63: 36-9. doi: 10.1055/s‑2006‑957599

6. Krishna Kumar H. N., Bhavyashree, K. G., Chauhan, J. B. Phytochemical screening and antibacterial activity of Stachytarpheta indica. Global Journal of Pharmacology. 2012; 6(1): 4-7.

7. Chandler G. T., Westaway J. O., Conn B. J. Taxonomic uncertainty of Stachytarpheta (Verbenaceae) in the Asia-Pacific and implications for invasive weed recognition and management. Journal of Plant Systematics. 2014; 16: 83-88. doi: 10.7751/telopea20147536

8. Anyensu ES: Medicinal plants of West Africa. Algonac, Michigan, Publications inc., 1978; pp 110.

9. Rozianoor M. H. W., Nadia K. N., S. Nurdiana. Stachytarpheta jamaicensis ethanolic leaf extract as a wound healer on alloxan-induced diabetic Sprague Dawley rats. Bio Technology An Indian Journal. 2014; 9(11): 460-466.

10. Joshi V. G., Sutar P. S., Kargar A. A., Patil S. A., Gopalakrishna, B. & Sureban, R. R. Screening of ethanolic extract of Stachytarpheta indica L. (Vahl) leaves for hepatoprotective activity. International Journal of Research in Ayurveda and Pharmacy. 2010; 1(1): 174-179.

11. Sunday O. O., Uguru O. M., Akanbi B. E. Anti-diarrhea effect of aqueous extracts of Momordica balsamina and Stachytarpheta indica in rats. Journal of Natural Products. 2008; 1: 36-45.

12. Spoorthi. N, Pinki Verma, Hemavathi. N. Amelioration of Antipsychotic Activity of Ethanolic Fruit Extract of Piper longum and its effects on TNF-α Expression in Rat Hippocampus. Research Journal of Pharmacy and Technology. 2024; 17(9): 4214-0. doi: 10.52711/0974-360X.2024.00651

13. H.N. Krishna Kumar, S.D. Preethi, E. Chandana, Jyothi Bala Chauhan. Phytochemical screening and anti-bacterial activity of Stachytarpheta indica. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research. 2012; 3(6): 1684-1687. doi: 10.13040/IJPSR.0975-8232.3(6).1684-87

14. WIKTROP-Weed Identification and Knowledge in the Tropical and Mediterranean areas. Stachytarpheta indica (L.) Vahl. https://portal.wiktrop.org/species/show/559

15. D K Ved, Suma Tagadur Sureshchandra, Vijay Barve, Vijay Srinivas, Sathya Sangeetha, K. Ravikumar, Kartikeyan R., Vaibhav Kulkarni, Ajith S. Kumar, S.N. Venugopal, B. S. Somashekhar, M.V. Sumanth, Noorunissa Begum, Sugandhi Rani, Surekha K.V., and Nikhil Desale. 2016. (envis.frlht.org / frlhtenvis.nic.in). FRLHT's ENVIS Centre on Medicinal Plants, Bengaluru. http://envis.frlht.org/plant_details.php?disp_id=4868

16. India Biodiversity portal. Stachytarpheta indica (L.) Vahl. https://indiabiodiversity.org/species/show/231208

17. Marita I. G, Keith Moody, Colin M. Piggin. Upland rice weeds of South East Asia. IRRI. 1999.

18. Priyanka D. Yadav, Karuna P. Modi, Mamta B Shah. Phytochemistry, pharmacology and botanical aspects of Stachytarpheta species -A review. International Journal of Green Pharmacy. 2021; 15(2): 114-124. doi: 10.22377/ijgp. v15i2.3078

19. Stachytarpheta indica-Indian Snakeweed; 2021. Available from: http://www.flowersofindia.net/catalog/ slides/indiansnakeweed.html. [Last accessed on 2021 May 26].

20. R Yuvaraj, Mudiganti Ram Krishna Rao, K. Prabhu, R. Lakshmi Sundram, Sampad shil, M. Satish kumar, N. Vijayalakshmi. The gas chromatography- mass spectrometry study of one medicinal plant, Stachytarpheta indica. Drug Invention Today. 2019; 12(8): 1665-1669.

21. Shaikh Bokhtear Uddin. Medicinal plants of Bangladesh. Accessed on 8 Nov 2015 from http://www.mpbd.info/plants/stachytarphetaindica.php

22. Roengsumran S, Sookkongwaree K, Jaiboon N, Chaichit N, Petsom A. Crystal structure of ipolamiide monohydrate from Stachytarpheta indica. Analytical Sciences. 2002; 18: 1063-1064. doi: 10.2116/analsci.18.1063.

23. Hemavathi N, Pinki Verma, Spoorthi N. Antidepressant and Antioxidant Activity of Ethanolic Extract of Evolvulus alsinoides Leaves and its effect on TNF-α Expression in Mice Hippocampus. Research Journal of Pharmacy and Technology. 2025; 18(4): 1551-6. doi: 10.52711/0974-360X.2025.

24. Sahoo SR, Dash RR, Bhatnagar S. Phytochemical screening and bioevaluation of medicinal plant Stachytarpheta indica (L.) Vahl. Pharmacology and Toxicology Research. 2014; 1: 1-5.

25. Félicien Mushagalusa Kasali, Fidele Murhambe Wendo, Sévérin Kavatsurwa Muyisa, Justin Ntokamunda Kadima. Comparative Hypoglycemic Activity of Flavonoids and Tannins Fractions of Stachytarpheta indica (L.) Vahl Leaves Extracts in Guinea-Pigs and Rabbits. International Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Research. 2016; 5(2): 48-57.

26. 26.Ogbiko C, Musa DA, Dabai MU, Ali IJ. Yelwa AS, Bature HB. Phytochemical, quantitative proximate and in vitro anti-inflammatory study of the crude methanol extract of Stachytarpheta indica leaves (Verbenaceae). Earthline Journal of Chemical Sciences. 2019; 2: 153-62. doi: 10.34198/ejcs.2119.153162

27. Gayatri G, Babu JR, Sumalatha N, Venkateswarao J, Vidyadhara S. Hepatoprotective activity of ethanolic extract of Stachytarpheta indica on Wistar rats. International Journal of Comprehensive Pharmacy.2011; 1: 1-4.

28. Kumar K., Krishna H.N., Chandana E.C., Jyott B. Phytochemical screening and bacterial activity of Stachytarpheta indica. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences & Research. 2012; 3(6): 1684-87. doi: 10.13040/IJPSR.0975-8232.

29. P.M. Kale. A Review Article on Euphorbia hirta uses and pharmacological activities. Asian Journal of Research in Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2016; 6(3): 141-145. doi: 10.5958/2231-5659.2016.00027.8

30. N. R. N. Jagadish, B. Gopalkrishna. Evaluation of analgesic activity of different extracts of Stachytarpheta indica L. (Vahl). Biomed. 2008; 3: 229-233.

31. Agampodi, Vajira Asela, Katavic, Peter, Collet, Chris, & Collet, Trudi. Antibacterial and Anti-inflammatory Activity of Extracts and Major Constituents Derived from Stachytarpheta indica Linn. Leaves and Their Potential Implications for Wound Healing. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology. 2022; 194(12): 6213-6254. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12010-021-03635-4

32. Achimugu Dickson Musa, Cyril Ogbiko, Musa Usman Dabai, Ibeabuchi Jude Ali, Abubakar Sani Yelwa and Hafsat Bature Buhari. Stachytarpheta indica Leaf Extract: Oral Acute Toxicity, In vitro Phytochemical and Antimicrobial Potentials. Earthline Journal of Chemical Sciences. 2019; 2(1): 163-173. DOI: 10.34198/ejcs.2119.163173

33. Sourabh S. Baghel, Sonal Dangi, Prashant Soni, Priya Singh, Yogesh Shivhare. Acute Toxicity Study of Aqueous Extract of Coccinia indica (Roots). Asian Journal of Research in Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2011; 1(1): 23-25.

34. Satheesh Kumar. G, Noorjahan, G. Sadhana Reddy, Syed Khundmeer Mujahid, T. Ashwini, V. Mahender Chary. Extraction, Phytochemical Studies and in–Vitro Screening of the Leaves and Flowers of Crossandra infundibuliformis against Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Asian Journal of Research in Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2018; 8(4): 247-252. doi: 10.5958/2231-5659.2018.00041.3

35. Sudeep Ranjan Sahoo, Rashmi Ranjan Dash, Sunita Bhatnagar. Phytochemical screening and bioevaluation of medicinal plant Stachytarpheta indica (L.) Vahl. Pharmacology & Toxicology Research.2014; 1(2): 1-5.

36. Silambujanaki P, Chitra V, Soni D, Raju D, Sankari M. Hypoglycemic activity of Stachytarpheta indica on streptozotocin induced Wistar strain rats. International Journal of PharmTech Research.2009; 1: 1564-1567.

37. Sonali P. Mahaparale, Reshma S. Kore. Silver Nanoparticles: Synthesis, Characterization, Application, Future Outlook. Asian Journal of Research in Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2019; 9(3): 181-189.

38. Pragati A. Bachhav, Rajavi M. Shroff, Atul A. Shirkhedkar. Silver Nanoparticles: A Comprehensive Review on Mechanism, Synthesis and Biomedical Applications. Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical Research. 2020; 10(3): 202-212.

39. Satbir Singh, Harsh Mittal, Kehar Singh, Hemant Rana. A Review on Chemistry, Synthesis, Extraction, Nano-formulation and Therapeutic use of Curcumin. Asian Journal of Research in Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2025; 15(2): 135-0.doi: 10.52711/2231-5659.2025.00021

40. Comfort Ngwu, Jude Nnaji, Stevens Odoemelam. Characterization of Magnetite and Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles bio-synthesized with Snakeweed (Stachytarpheta Indica). Technium Romanian Journal of Applied Sciences and Technology. 2022; 2(5): 49-61. doi:10.47577/technium. v2i5.1035

41. Piyush Joshi, Laxmi Kant Pandey, Vaibhav Misra, Ajad Patel, Ranjan Singh and Zareen Baksh. Green Synthesis and Characterization of Silver Nanoparticles Using Stachytarpheta indica. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences. 2025; 14(4): 16-24. doi: https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2025.1404.004

42. Piyush Joshi, Laxmikant Pandey, Ajad Patel, Zareen Baksh, Prashant Singh and Ranjan Singh and Vaibhav Mishra. Eco-Friendly Synthesis and Characterisation of Zinc Nanoparticles Using Medicinal Plant Stachytarpheta indica. Acta Scientific microbiology. 2025; 8(6): 15-23.

Received on 01.08.2025 Revised on 27.11.2025

Accepted on 28.01.2026 Published on 06.07.2026

Available online from July 20, 2026

Asian J. Pharm. Res. 2026; 16(3):269-274.

DOI: 10.52711/2231-5691.2026.00040

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. Creative Commons License.